The ability to use complex language is not only one of the things that makes us unique as a species, but it is also what contributes to shaping our linguistic and social identity. During social interaction, particularly in the process of communicating with the others, we adopt certain attitudes and social roles, make linguistic and stylistic choices, express different points of view about the world, all of which enable us to present different aspects of our personality and a different “face” (in Goffman’s terminology) each time we interact. As a product of linguistic interaction, this identity keeps changing according to the various images that we project at different times while communicating. The fact that we are the “creators” of our own identities gives us power, but it also places us under the responsibility of making socially-informed linguistic choices.
The English classes, through their language practice component, provide ample opportunities for students to learn and consolidate their skills of building an identity. By paying close attention to the use of linguistic items and grammar structures according to communicative goals and (social) context, students can do more than just acquire linguistic ability. They can also improve their communicative competence, particularly the interactional aspect of it. In the process of perfecting these skills, students are bound to express intentionality and agency, exercise responsibility and employ linguistic and socially-motivated strategies. All these aspects empower learners, enabling them to use their linguistic ability and communicative competence so as to both express and (re)-construct their identity in an effective manner.
The first step that students have to take on the path of creating social identity is that of improving their command of language, starting with their knowledge of vocabulary and grammar structures. As regards vocabulary, attention has to be focused on different issues, such as: the difference between denotation and connotation, collocations, idiomatic aspects, style and register, sense relations, word structure, spelling, pronunciation. For example, the word daisy refers to a type of flower (its denotation), but it can also be associated with the ideas of beauty and freshness, or death (its connotative value) as illustrated in the idioms as fresh as a daisy or to push up the daisies, respectively. The word can also be part of certain collocations like a field of daisies, to pick daisies, daisy chain, which indicate the words that are often used with the noun daisy.
Sense relations are also important since synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, polysemy or homonymy help students decide which word in a paradigmatic series best illustrates their meaning. It is useful to know, for instance, that the noun bear is a hyponym of the word animal (the meaning of the former is included in the meaning of the latter) or that it can also be used as a verb, thus establishing a relation of homonymy with the noun (having the same pronunciation and spelling, but a different meaning). In order to express different shades of meaning, knowledge of synonymy is essential, particularly if the context requires a certain style. For example, to get, to acquire, to come by, to procure can all be regarded as synonyms. Yet, each of them is associated with a particular meaning or context. The verbs to acquire and to procure are used in formal contexts, the former being also linked with learning a skill or habit and the latter being also employed in legal contexts. The verb to get can be used in a variety of contexts since it is less formal than to acquire and to procure. The phrasal verb to come by is mainly used in informal contexts and it can also mean to visit. Being aware of all the differences in meaning and of all the available semantic possibilities guides learners towards a more controlled manner of using words.
Knowing the meanings of words has to be accompanied by an awareness of grammatical structures and their communicative potential. Combining words into correct sentences is achieved by taking into account features such as number, gender, tense, voice, mood and aspect. Nevertheless, just uttering well-formed sentences may not be enough for achieving communicative purposes. For instance, if learners want to acknowledge responsibility for their own actions, the use of the active voice should be preferred to passive constructions as the latter, by shifting the blame onto others, can make speakers appear more vulnerable to criticism and less willing to correct their mistakes or change their behaviour. Therefore, instead of saying “The relationship was ruined as a result of my remarks.”, which actually reflects a vague sense of responsibility assigned to a process (“as a result of …..”) rather than to a person, the sentence should be replaced by “I ruined the relationship because of my remarks.” The active voice allows learners to express agency by showing them in control of their actions and fully aware of the consequences.
The above example illustrates the fact that linguistic ability is not enough in managing social interactions and creating socially acceptable self-images. It is an important stepping stone, but more is required in order to convey genuine messages about ourselves and preserve relationships. Students need to use their linguistic ability appropriately and effectively according to context, social norms and personal goals. This means that they have to improve their communicative competence and especially their interactional skills. Some of the aspects that are important in this regard involve speech acts, politeness strategies, turn-taking, active listening, cooperation and negotiation, self-disclosure.
It is now common knowledge that using language in social interactions means performing a kind of action. This view is illustrated in the manner in which learning grammar structures is always linked to the function they serve in communication. For instance, we express wishes, thanks, compliments, apologies, congratulations, orders, requests, suggestions, advice. All these speech acts are performed intentionally and elicit a response on the part of the listener. The speech act theory (introduced by Austin and developed by Searle) presents a view of the speaker in action, doing things and having effects on the interaction partner. As such, learners have to think carefully about what they are going to say, choosing the variant that helps them to both achieve their goal and show respect towards the other(s). For example, if they want the interlocutor to do something, instead of using a directive speech act, expressed by means of an imperative sentence (“Change the subject!”), they could resort to a number of more polite options in order to protect the other’s “face”, such as: using an interrogative sentence (“Could you change the subject, please?”), using a past tense verb in a declarative sentence (“I was wondering if you could change the subject.”), using an embedded conditional clause (“I would appreciate it if you could change the subject.”), involving the listener by asking for cooperation (“Do you think you could change the subject?”).
All these indirect means of asking the other to do something apparently place the speaker in an inferior position because being indirect is usually associated with being less forceful or assertive. Nevertheless, in this case, forcefulness is replaced by subtlety and deference towards the other’s self-image, enabling the speaker to get things done and to preserve the relationship at the same time. Thus, by employing politeness strategies, learners actively position themselves as respectful interaction partners, creating opportunities for social cooperation and self-development.
As roles change during the turn-taking process, speakers get to be listeners, employing active listening techniques, such as encouraging utterances (“Please, go on!”), asking clarifying questions (“For example?”, “What did you mean by that?”), completing the message or anticipating (“I guess you’ll say that….”), using non-verbal cues (smiling, making eye contact). Active listening techniques, just like politeness strategies, indicate the need and intention of cooperation (also illustrated by Grice in his cooperative principle), positioning the interaction participants as partners in (re-) creating reality and identity.
Learning how to use speech acts according to context and how to employ politeness strategies and active listening techniques is indicative of the strategic skills and active role that students need to have during the language practice section of the English class or during social interactions, generally speaking. Yet, there are additional skills that students need to acquire and consolidate in order to actively participate in creating their own identity. Knowing how to solve conflicts and being able to negotiate are also important aspects of interpersonal communication. Failing to negotiate and to reach an agreement, whether it involves self-images, positions adopted during interactions, meanings or the relationship itself, usually leads to conflict. The best strategy to resort to in such a case is concentrating on identifying the problem and finding a solution that could satisfy both interaction participants (the win-win strategy). This can be achieved by being honest and taking responsibility (using “I” sentences instead of “You” ones) and by suggesting realistic and relevant options in a clear and concise manner (applying Grice’s conversational maxims).
Negotiating can be useful either before the conflict starts, thus helping to prevent it, or even during the conflict, enabling the participants to reach a mutually satisfying agreement. Negotiating meanings can be done, for instance, by asking for clarifications (“What do you mean by ……?”), re-formulations (“So, you are saying ……”), repetitions or corrections (“In fact, you wanted to say that …….”). Self-images can also be negotiated through a process of disclosure of personal information, acceptance of differences, reciprocation (revealing personal information in return). Through interaction, students learn to disclose parts of themselves and to use the others’ perspectives on their actions, thoughts, feelings and attitudes as a kind of mirror that helps them get a clearer image of themselves. Self-disclosure can be risky because it can bring about the others’ criticism and a sense of vulnerability. Yet, relationships cannot be maintained without it. In fact, there can be no real communication without self-disclosure and, conversely, there can be no self-image or sense of identity without social interaction and its main component, verbal communication.
Using language correctly, appropriately and effectively, whether it is done in our daily interactions or during foreign language practice, is essential if we want to convey faithful images of ourselves and to maintain good relationships with the others. Language practice, as part of formal social interaction within an educational setting, provides opportunities for students to learn how to be actively involved in creating their own identity by making skilful use of words.
Bibliography
1. Austin, John Langshaw (1975): How to do things with words, Second Edition, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
2. Bucholtz, Mary and Hall, Kira (2005): “Identity and interaction: a socio-cultural linguistic approach”, in Discourse Studies, SAGE Publications, Vol. 7 (4-5) from www.sagepublications.com
3. Yule, George (1996): Pragmatics, Oxford University Press, New York.